In the summer of 1190, Frederick Barbarossa—the Holy Roman Emperor—was marching across Anatolia during the Third Crusade, leading an enormous German-led host toward the Levant. This wasn’t a symbolic pilgrimage. It was a moving state: nobles, knights, infantry, logistics, and reputation. Frederick’s presence mattered as much as his numbers, because medieval armies were held together by personal authority. When the ruler lived, the coalition stayed coherent. When the ruler died, everything became

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